Albert Hofmann

 Albert Hofmann

Albert Hofmann was a Swiss scientist who was intrigued by nature. This led him to a career in chemistry in which he sought answers to his uncertainties. He worked at Sandoz Laboratories where he nurtured his research work, and there he made a lot of success working with various plants and converting them into something useful. He became famous when he became the first person to produce lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). In addition, he was also the first person to taste it and learn about its hallucinogenic effects. He was deeply connected to the nature and argued that LSD, besides being useful for psychiatry, could also be used to promote awareness of mankind’s place in nature. However, he was disappointed that his discovery was being carelessly used as a drug for entertainment. Because of his discovery, LSD fans have fondly called him ‘The Father of LSD.’ Besides carrying out his scientific experiments, he also authored numerous books and more than 100 scientific articles. In 2007, he featured in a list of the 100 greatest living geniuses, published by The Telegraph newspaper.

Childhood & Early Life

• Albert Hofmann was born in Baden, Switzerland, on January 11, 1906. He was the eldest of four children. His father was a poor toolmaker in a factory and they lived in a rented apartment. He spent much of his childhood outdoors, and grew up with a very deep connection with nature.
• He had mind-blowing experiences in childhood, wherein nature was changed in magical ways that he didn’t understand. These experiences provoked questions in his mind, and chemistry was the scientific field which allowed him to understand them.
• He studied chemistry at Zurich University, his main interest being the chemistry of plants and animals. At 23, he earned his PhD with honors.

   

  Career

  • He took a job with Sandoz Laboratories; he was attracted by their program to produce pharmacological compounds from medicinally important plants.
  • He first synthesized LSD on November 16, 1938 with an aim to obtain a respiratory and circulatory stimulant. The research was set aside for five years.
  • He stumbled on LSD again when he was working on the ergot fungus on April 16 1943. He accidentally ate a trace of the compound and came to know about its powerful effects.
  • On April 19, 1943, he deliberately swallowed a dose of LSD and rode his bicycle home as the effects of the drug engulfed him. That day was remembered by LSD enthusiasts as “bicycle day.”
  • In 1958, Hofmann discovered ‘ethacetin’, which is an 'intoxicating tryptamine.’
  • He became director of the natural products department at Sandoz Laboratories. He continued studying hallucinogenic substances found in Mexican mushrooms and other plants. He produced ‘psilocybin’, the active agent of many ‘magic mushrooms.’
  • He also became interested in the seeds of the Mexican morning glory and found that the active compound ‘ergine’ (LSA, ‘lysergic acid amide’), has a distinct likeness to LSD.
  • Hofmann also produced other important drugs like ‘methergine’, for treating postpartum hemorrhaging, which was the leading cause of death from childbirth.
  • In 1962, he and his wife Anita Hofmann went to Mexico to search for the plant ‘Ska Maria Pastora’ to identify its active compound. However, he was not able to identify it at that time. It was later identified as the ‘diterpenoid salvinorin A’.
  • In 1963, he attended the annual convention of the ‘World Academy of Arts and Sciences’ (WAAS) in Stockholm.
  • He stayed with Sandoz Laboratories as head of the research department for natural medicines until he retired in 1971.
  • He delivered a speech at the 1996 Worlds of Consciousness Conference in Heidelberg, Germany.
  • In an interview before he turned 100, Hoffman called LSD “medicine for the soul.” He was disappointed that it was prohibited worldwide, knowing that it has been very successful in psychoanalysis. However, he acknowledged that it could be dangerous if misused, especially if given to a first-time user without supervision from a doctor.

     

    Awards & Achievements

    • Albert Hofmann received the title D.Sc. (honoris causa) in 1969 from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology.
    • In 1971, the Swedish Pharmaceutical Association (Sveriges Farmacevtförbund) gave him the Scheele Award. It’s an award which commemorates the achievements of Carl Wilhelm Scheele, the Swedish Pomeranian chemist and pharmacist.
    • In a list of the 100 greatest living geniuses published by The Telegraph newspaper in 2007, he shared first place, together with Tim Berners-Lee.

       

      Personal Life & Legacy

      • Albert Hofmann was married to Anita and the couple had four children. His wife died in 2007 and one of his children also predeceased him.
      • He died on April 29, 2008, at the age of 102, due to a heart attack.

Alan Turing was born to Julius Mathison and Ethel Sara on June 23, 1912

Alan Turing

 

Computers would probably have been non-existent if it wasn't for famous British mathematician, Alan Turing. Having been a child prodigy, he went on to pursue his PhD from the 'Princeton University'. Soon, he became an important member of a group of code-breakers in the 'Government Code and Cypher School' ('GC&CS') in Bletchley Park. He was given the daunting task of deciphering the ever-changing German codes sent through the ingenious machine, 'Enigma'. Alan proved the almost impossible task, possible with his 'bombe' device, which used a technique called 'Banburismus'. Eventually this mathematician and his team of code-breakers were successful in defeating the 'Enigma'. However, two code-breakers from his team were found out to be Soviet spies, and thus the work was declared highly confidential. For a long time, no records of Turing's work were available, and the 'Official Secrets Act' prohibited him from talking about his work to anyone. His homosexuality caused him to be convicted, though the British government has apologized posthumously in recent times. His works and life has recently been popularized by the ‘Academy Award’ winning movie, ‘The Imitation Game’, released in 2014. Read on and explore the life and works of this brilliant mathematician and code-breaker.

Childhood & Early Life

• Alan Mathison Turing was born to Julius Mathison and Ethel Sara on June 23, 1912, in Paddington, London. Julius was employed with the 'Indian Civil Service', and with his wife, he had another son, John.
• He pursued his elementary education from 'St Michael's', later studying at the 'Sherborne School' in Dorset, starting from 1926.
• In 1931, he began attending 'King's College', at the 'University of Cambridge', graduating in mathematics three years later with top scores.
• He began pursuing a fellowship from 'King's College' in 1935, during which he published the paper, 'On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem'.
• It was in this paper that he drew references from Austrian mathematician Kurt Gödel's research to develop simple imaginary devices which came to be called 'Turing machines'.
• According to his hypothesis, such a machine is capable of calculating anything that can be quantified. The modern computer came into existence because of this assumption made by the young Turing.
• During 1936-38, he was taught at the 'Princeton University', by famous American logician, Alonzo Church. Along with lessons in mathematics, Alan was taught cryptology, and towards the end of this period, he was able to get his PhD from the university. After this he was also taught by Ludwig Wittgenstein, at the 'University of Cambridge'.

Career

• In September 1938, Turing took up a part-time job at the 'Government Code and Cypher School' ('GC&CS'), an organization that specialized in breaking war codes. The 'GC&CS' was located at Bletchley Park during the World War II, and it was here that Alan was accompanied by fellow code-breaker Dilly Knox.
• The young mathematician was appointed to break the codes sent by German officials, during World War II, through the radio machine, 'Enigma'. In 1939, the 'Polish Cipher Bureau' had shared with the 'GC&CS', their method of trying to break the codes.
• Knox and Alan tried to develop the complex Polish techniques into a simpler and more workable method. The indicators referred to by the Polish were not too reliable, since they could be altered at any point of time by the Germans. Turing thus tried using decoding methods, and developed a device known as the 'bombe'.
• In December, 1939, he developed a decrypting technique using statistical analysis, and called it the 'Banburismus'. The 'Banburismus' had the potential to decipher the 'Enigma' codes, which were more complex than those used by other warring countries.
• The first bombe began functioning in Bletchley Park, on March 18, 1940, and it was built to electrically arrive at logical conclusions about what the Enigma indicators meant.
• By the following year, Turing and his colleagues, Hugh Alexander, Gordon Welchman, and Stuart Milner-Barry, were getting agitated with their slow progress. They needed more people and funding, and sought out Prime Minister Winston Churchill for help. Churchill obliged to the urgency shown, and soon there were over 200 ‘bombes’ in place.
• In 1942, the brilliant mathematician went to the United States to study the methods of breaking the 'Naval Enigma' codes being employed by logicians at the 'Computing Machine Laboratory', in Dayton, Ohio.
• The same year, he invented the 'Turingery' method to combat and decipher coded messages being sent by Germans through their newly built 'Geheimschreiber' typing machine. The device, based on the new technique, built by Alan, was given the name 'Tunny' at Bletchley Park.
• During 1945-47, Turing began working at the 'National Physical Laboratory' ('NPL'), where he developed a machine called the 'Automatic Computing Engine' ('ACE').
• Around the same time, he produced a research paper describing his conception of computer that could hold pre-fed programs. A crude and incomplete model of the 'ACE' was built for testing purposes in 1950, when the illustrious mathematician was in Cambridge.
• Computers like the 'Bendix G-15', designed in America, and 'Electric DEUCE', built in England, are based on the 'ACE'.
• In 1948, Turing began working at the 'Computing Laboratory' initiated by mathematician Max Newman, located in the 'University of Manchester'. It was here that the former began showing an inclination towards mathematical biology.
• The same year, he also worked as a Lecturer at the 'University of Manchester's Department of Mathematics. During this time, with help from his friend, D. G. Champernowne, he began developing a chess program, which could be played on a computer that he had envisioned but not built.
• In 1948, he also stated the 'LU decomposition method', a pioneering technique which is presently used to solve matrices.
• The following year, he was promoted at the university to the post of Deputy Director of the 'Computing Laboratory'. He developed a type of software named 'Manchester Mark 1', while continuing to research on abstract mathematics and artificial intelligence.
• He developed the 'Turing Test', which can judge whether a machine is "intelligent" or not. In 1950, the chess program was built, with Champernowne's help, and was named 'Turochamp'.
• From 1952-54, despite failing health, he pursued research on mathematical biology, and produced the thesis titled 'The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis'

  Major Works

  • This scientist is known for having pioneered the concept of modern-day computers, by introducing the idea of a ‘Turing Machine’, which is simple, and yet capable of solving any form of algorithms that can be measured and quantified.

   

  Awards & Achievements

  • Alan was awarded the 'Smith's Prize' in 1939, by the 'University of Cambridge', for his exceptional contribution in the field of applied mathematics.
  • In 1945, this great mathematician was honoured by King George VI, with the 'Most Excellent Order of the British Empire', for his services during the World War II.

  
   

  Personal Life & Legacy

  • While studying at the 'Sherborne School', Alan befriended classmate Christopher Morcom, who the former fell in love with. The blossoming friendship abruptly ended when Morcom died of bovine tuberculosis.
  • In 1941, he proposed to Joan Clarke, who was his colleague at Bletchley Park. The two got engaged, but the marriage was soon called off when Turing decided it was unfair getting married to Clarke despite being homosexual.
  • At the age of 39, Alan got into a relationship with 19 year old, Arnold Murray. During a burglary investigation at the mathematician's house, personal details about his homosexuality came into light, and Alan was arrested on charges of indecency.
  • After conviction in 1952, he was given a choice between hormonal castration using medicines or imprisonment. The ingenious logician chose medication so that he could continue his scientific work at home.
  • On June 8, 1954, Alan was found poisoned at home, and after the autopsy, it was concluded that he had taken his own life by consuming large quantities of potassium cyanide.
  • Several awards have been named after this mathematical genius, and many biographies have been penned, the most notable being by the 'Royal Society'.
  • A novel, 'Cryptonomicon', by American writer, Neal Stephenson, published in 1999, refers to this famous mathematician.
  • The 2014 movie, 'The Imitation Game', was featured on Alan's life, with British actor Benedict Cumberbatch playing the mathematician's role.
  • Several universities have named rooms, buildings, and even computer programs, after the distinguished mathematician.

  
  

Top 10 Greatest Scientists Who Changed The World

 

Right from the beginning of human settlement, a lot of people came up with ideas, philosophies, beliefs, experiments, research, redesigning of thoughts, and surveys to bring myths to reality. People contributed for science to study different aspects of nature to prosper mankind. These genius minds put a keen interest on every phenomenon right from when they were kids. The zeal, passion, dedication, hard work and the effort they put in their work helped them discover something new about the world we live in.
The world today dwells in the abode of scientific advancement in different sectors of medical science, engineering and technology because of these scientists. The present picture of the world that we see would not have transformed without the contribution of these great personalities. Great philosophers and masterminds that existed in the ancient Greek era to the present day scientists, we’ve seen inexplicable abilities that helped us define our existence and human life.
Their names are engraved in the sands of time for their work in the welfare of mankind with different inventions that has made our modern lives easy. The following list commemorates 10 of the greatest scientists we’ve ever seen who changed the world.

10. Aristotle (384-322 BC)

Student of Plato and a tutor to Alexander the Great, Aristotle was a genius Greek philosopher and scientist of the ancient age. Born on 384 BC Aristotle was a biologist, a zoologist, ethicist, a political scientist and the master of rhetoric and logic. He also gave theories in physics and meta physics.
Aristotle gained knowledge in different fields with his expansive mind and prodigious writings. However, only a fraction of his writings are preserved at present. Aristotle made collections to the plant and animal specimens and classified them according to their characteristics which made an standard for future work. He further gave theories on the philosophy of science.
Aristotle also elaborated and estimated the size of earth which Plato assumed to be globe. Aristotle explained the chain of life through his study in flora and fauna where it turned from simple to more complex.

9. Archimedes (287-212 BC)

Regarded as the greatest mathematician ever, Archimedes developed profound and influential knowledge on mathematical physics and engineering that are widely used in machines as well as in constructions. Born on 287 BC, Archimedes is one of the finest scientist who broke through in both theories and practice.
He introduced infinitesimals and laid the foundation for calculus. He gave descriptions on the first finite geometric progression, computed areas and volumes of sphere and parabolic segments.
He also discovered the laws of lever, density, fluid equilibrium, buoyancy in different fields statics and hydrostatics. He is regarded as the prophet to the formal science that was started in Ancient Greece.
“Give me a place to stand and I can move the whole world”, he said and we can still fill the impact of his generosity even today. All other scientists after him stand on his shoulders. Even though most of his work were burned in the museum of Alexandria, the remnants gave enough ideas for modern day science and technology.

 8. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642 AD)

Born in Pisa, Italy in 1564, Galileo is called as the father of modern science because of his discoveries in astronomy and physics.
He was sent to study medicine by his father, but he chose his career in science and mathematics and made the first telescope to observe stars and planets.
He also discovered the law of pendulum as he watched a chandelier swing in the cathedral of Pisa. He also discovered that the surface of moon was not smooth but contained burrows and holes to what he called crater.
Galileo discovered 4 revolving moons around Jupiter which are named after him. He proved what Copernicus said about sun being the center of the solar system. Galileo became blind in his old days and died in the year 1642.

 7. Michael Faraday (1791-1867 AD)

Born on 1791, British citizen Michael Faraday was a son of a blacksmith who had to leave school in the fourth grade.It started working as a bookbinder and taught himself to read and writer. He developed a fascination with science and particularly in electricity after he studied lot of serious academic works during his days.
Faraday is specially known for his discoveries of electromagnetic inductions and rotations, field theory, dia-magnetization and the magneto-optical effect. This humble genius invented the electric motor and Faraday’s ring.
Faraday’s inquisitive and curious nature made him take chemistry lectures and taught at the Royal Institution as a lecturer later when Humphry Davy retired.
Faraday also published research papers optical deceptions, condensation of gases and isolation of benzene from gas oils. He also wrote books on ”Experimental Researches in Electricity” and the “Chemical history of the Candle”. Faraday died on 1867.

 6. Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931 AD)

“The Wizard of the Menlo Park” nicknamed Thomas Alva Edison was born in 1847. Excelled as both scientist and inventor, Edison patented a whopping total of 1,093 inventions in his life time. Most of the inventions that came from Edison are batteries, phonographs, cement, mining, telegraphs, lights and powers.
He also improved the telephone made by Graham Bell and invented the kinetoscope that was used for viewing moving films. He was seen working almost more than 20 hours a day.
Edison masterminded the digital voting system with his electro-graphic vote recorder for the legislative of the parliament. He also proposed ideas on preserving fruits by keeping it in vacuum. Edison pioneered the idea for storage batteries that was later used by Henry ford in his automobile.
“Genius is one percent inspiration and 99 percent perspiration” is one of the most famous quote by this genius. He died in the year 1931.

 5. Marie Curie Sklodowska (1867-1934 AD)

 Marie Curie holds record for the first female to be awarded with a Nobel Prize. Inventor and scientist Curie was born as the youngest of five children in the year 1867 in Warsaw, Poland.
Marie Curie has always remained a source of inspiration and motivation for different female scientists because of her determination to work. She invented the first mobile X-ray machine which helped to check the injured soldiers in the battlefield.
Radium is another great invention from her. Curie experimented different elements to check their radio activity and found thorium. She also invented the pitch-blend which was the source of radiation in a mixture more powerful than uranium or thorium. She is also called ”the mother of atom bomb” with her invention of the radio active materials.
However, with all her brilliance, hard work and patience in careful experiments she performed, her own invention killed her because of radiation poisoning in 1934.

 4. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895 AD)

Louis Pasteur made astounding contributions in the field of science, technology and medicine. This genius was born on 1822 and spent his life working in chemistry and microbiology.
Pasteur was the first ever scientist to study about fermentation in food elements that was caused by microbes. He also explained about biogenesis and proposed a theory named as the “Germ Theory”. He also created a process of toning and treating milk free from the damage causing microbes to what he called ”Pasteurization”.
Pasteur is also regarded as the first man on earth to ever discover cure for puerperal fever and make the vaccines for rabies and anthrax. He also explained the asymmetry in various crystals on a molecular basis.
His breadth of accomplishment and approaches in different fields of discoveries and inventions makes him a giant genius. He died in 1895.

3. Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727 AD)

Born on 1643 in Woolsthrope, England, Sir Issac Newton is best known for his law on gravitation. He was a poor student at school or at running the family estate. However, he loved making mechanical toys and models of windmills.
Newton explained the theory of gravity and gravitation by inventing calculus as no other principles could explain it. The new revolution in mathematics, calculus was derived from his binomial theorem to infinite series which accurately could measure the area inside the curve or rate of change of it.
He also explained the theory on tides which occurred due to the gravitation pull from the sun, moon and earth.
He also invented the reflecting telescope. Newtons laws can be found in different areas of mechanics, optics and chemistry. He was knighted with the title Sir by Queen Anne in 1705. Newton died at the age of 84, in 1727.

2. Albert Einstein (1879-1955 AD)

Born on 1879 in Ulm, Einstein is considered as one of the greatest revolutionary scientist the world has ever known.
The “Man of Century” has some spectacular works in physics which even makes him the father of modern physics for his contribution in developing the general theory of relativity. The world’s most famous equation E=mc2 on which the bomb is based comes from his theory.
One of the greatest scientist of the 20th century, Einstein’s Special theory of relativity revolutionized physics which even challenged the scientists at CERN. Albert Einstein’s genius mind for the scientific advancement cause immeasurable change to the world. Together with his intellect, he was also a celebrity with his flirtatious behavior that could impress any women.
This rare genius was awarded Nobel Prize in 1921 ”For his work on theortical physics, and for his discovery of the photoelectric effect”. Greatest physicist ever voted Einstein died on 1955 in Princeton.

1. Nikola Tesla (1856-1943 AD)

 This Serbian born scientist atop the list because of his immense knowledge in different fields of science and technology.

Without a question, this 1856 born guy was a cool geek. He could speak 8 languages, recite a whole book completely just with one reading, make a device just by seeing it once and not writing down anything. A funny fact about him was that he was a celibate his whole life.
Tesla had developed almost everything by himself and did not expose any of it which later was invented by other scientists in his time. Tesla had generated ac current before Edison knew about charges. Markoni who got Nobel prize for inventing radio used all the ideas of Tesla. X-rays by Roentgen, RADAR by Watson-watt were all devised by Nikola Tesla.
 
There was almost nothing that Tesla did not do. First hydro electricity plant in Niagara falls, experiments with cryogenic engineering, transistors, radio wave recorder from outer space were all built by Tesla. Remote control, neon lightening, modern electric motor, earthquake machine are finest inventions from Tesla. He was a true genius.
However, most of his ideas and inventions were either copied, stolen or taken by somebody else. Tesla made a way to charge a house with electric lightening for electricity purpose but did not share it thinking somebody else will take it.
This incredible mind created revolution with his inventions. He was a future-thinker and his minds would run on any wavelengths. However, he died tragically in a hotel room and was found dead only after two days of his death in 1943.